References
IPCC Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis (eds Stocker, T. F. et al.) (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2013).
Cazenave, A. et al. Global sea-level budget 1993–present. Earth Syst. Sci. Data 10, 1551–1590 (2018).
Meyssignac, B. et al. Measuring global ocean heat content to estimate the Earth energy imbalance. Front. Mar. Sci. 6, 432 (2019).
Johnson, G. C., Lyman, J. M. & Loeb, N. G. Improving estimates of Earth’s energy imbalance. Nat. Clim. Change 6, 639–640 (2016).
Roemmich, D. et al. Unabated planetary warming and its ocean structure since 2006. Nat. Clim. Change 5, 240–245 (2015).
Wijffels, S., Roemmich, D., Monselesan, D., Church, J. & Gilson, J. Ocean temperatures chronicle the ongoing warming of Earth. Nat. Clim. Change 6, 116–118 (2016).
Abraham, J. P. et al. A review of global ocean temperature observations: implications for ocean heat content estimates and climate change. Rev. Geophys. 51, 450–483 (2013).
Lyman, J. M. & Johnson, G. C. Estimating global ocean heat content changes in the upper 1800 m since 1950 and the influence of climatology choice. J. Clim. 27, 1945–1957 (2014).
Roemmich, D. et al. On the future of Argo: a global, full-depth, multi-disciplinary array. Front. Mar. Sci. 6, 439 (2019).
Johnson, G. C. & Birnbaum, A. N. As El Niño builds, Pacific Warm Pool expands, ocean gains more heat. Geophys. Res. Lett. 44, 438–445 (2017).
Roemmich, D. & Gilson, J. The global ocean imprint of ENSO. Geophys. Res. Lett. 38, L13606 (2011).
Palanisamy, H., Meyssignac, B., Cazenave, A. & Delcroix, T. Is anthropogenic sea level fingerprint already detectable in the Pacific Ocean? Environ. Res. Lett. 10, 084024 (2015).
Wills, R. C. J. et al. Ocean circulation signatures of North Pacific decadal variability. Geophys. Res. Lett. 46, 1690–1701 (2019).
Kenigson, J. S., Han, W. Q., Rajagopalan, B., Yanto & Jasinsk, M. Decadal shift of NAO-linked interannual sea level variability along the US northeast coast. J. Clim. 31, 4981–4989 (2018).
Roemmich, D., Gilson, J., Sutton, P. & Zilberman, N. Multidecadal change of the South Pacific Gyre circulation. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 46, 1871–1883 (2016).
Carson, M. & Harrison, D. E. Regional interdecadal variability in bias-corrected ocean temperature data. J. Clim. 23, 2847–2855 (2010).
Richter, K. & Marzeion, B. Earliest local emergence of forced dynamic and steric sea-level trends in climate models. Environ. Res. Lett. 9, 114009 (2014).
Blunden, J. & Arndt, D. S. State of the climate in 2018. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 100, Si–S305 (2019).
Johnson, G. C. et al. in State of the Climate in 2019 (Ed. Lumpkin, R.) S74–S77 (American Meteorological Society, 2019).
Ishii, M. et al. Accuracy of global upper ocean heat content estimation expected from present observational data sets. Sola 13, 163–167 (2017).
Cheng, L. J. et al. Improved estimates of ocean heat content from 1960 to 2015. Sci. Adv. 3, e1601545 (2017).
Levitus, S. et al. World ocean heat content and thermosteric sea level change (0-2000 m), 1955-2010. Geophys. Res. Lett. 39, L10603 (2012).
Wu, L. X. et al. Enhanced warming over the global subtropical western boundary currents. Nat. Clim. Change 2, 161–166 (2012).
McCarthy, G. D., Joyce, T. M. & Josey, S. A. Gulf Stream variability in the context of quasi-decadal and multidecadal Atlantic climate variability. Geophys. Res. Lett. 45, 11257–11264 (2018).
Wang, Y. L. & Wu, C. R. Discordant multi-decadal trend in the intensity of the Kuroshio along its path during 1993-2013. Sci. Rep. 8, 14633 (2018).
Chen, X. Y. & Tung, K. K. Varying planetary heat sink led to global-warming slowdown and acceleration. Science 345, 897–903 (2014).
Liu, W., Xie, S. P. & Lu, J. Tracking ocean heat uptake during the surface warming hiatus. Nat. Commun. 7, 10926 (2016).
He, C. F., Liu, Z. Y. & Hu, A. X. The transient response of atmospheric and oceanic heat transports to anthropogenic warming. Nat. Clim. Change 9, 222–226 (2019).
Armour, K. C., Marshall, J., Scott, J. R., Donohoe, A. & Newsom, E. R. Southern Ocean warming delayed by circumpolar upwelling and equatorward transport. Nat. Geosci. 9, 549 (2016).
Mantua, N. J., Hare, S. R., Zhang, Y., Wallace, J. M. & Francis, R. C. A Pacific interdecadal climate oscillation with impacts on salmon production. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 78, 1069–1079 (1997).
Salinger, M. J., Renwick, J. A. & Mullan, A. B. Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation and South Pacific climate. Int. J. Climatol. 21, 1705–1721 (2001).
Merrifield, M. A. & Maltrud, M. E. Regional sea level trends due to a Pacific trade wind intensification. Geophys. Res. Lett. 38, L21605 (2011).
Hamlington, B. D. et al. An ongoing shift in Pacific Ocean sea level. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 121, 5084–5097 (2016).
Roxy, M. K., Ritika, K., Terray, P. & Masson, S. The curious case of Indian Ocean warming. J. Clim. 27, 8501–8509 (2014).
Caesar, L., Rahmstorf, S., Robinson, A., Feulner, G. & Saba, V. Observed fingerprint of a weakening Atlantic Ocean overturning circulation. Nature 556, 191 (2018).
Smeed, D. A. et al. The North Atlantic Ocean Is in a state of reduced overturning. Geophys. Res. Lett. 45, 1527–1533 (2018).
Josey, S. A. et al. The recent Atlantic cold anomaly: causes, consequences, and related phenomena. Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci. 10, 475–501 (2018).
Durack, P. J. et al. Quantifying underestimates of long-term upper-ocean warming. Nat. Clim. Change 4, 999–1005 (2014).
Durack, P. J. et al. Ocean warming: from the surface to the deep in observations and models. Oceanography 31, 41–51 (2018).
Ingleby, B. & Huddleston, M. Quality control of ocean temperature and salinity profiles—historical and real-time data. J. Mar. Syst. 65, 158–175 (2007).
Locarnini, R. A. et al. World Ocean Atlas 2009, Volume 1: Temperature (US Government Printing Office, 2010).
Ishii, M. & Kimoto, M. Reevaluation of historical ocean heat content variations with time-varying XBT and MBT depth bias corrections. J. Oceanogr. 65, 287–299 (2009).
Smith, W. H. F. & Sandwell, D. T. Global sea floor topography from satellite altimetry and ship depth soundings. Science 277, 1956–1962 (1997).
Wunsch, C. The Ocean Circulation Inverse Problem (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1996).
von Storch, H. & Zwiers, F. W. Statistical Analysis in Climate Research (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1999).